Up until the 1950s, Southern Rhodesia had a vibrant political life with right and left wing parties competing for power. [38][39], Emboldened by the results of this referendum and the subsequent general election, the Rhodesian government threatened to declare independence without British consent. [81] Lieutenant General Alan Fraser, a senior strategist in the South African Defence Force wrote in 1970, "there can be no doubt in any of our minds that we have a common enemy: we, i.e. Even during the boom years of the late 1950s, when Rhodesia took in an average of 13,666 white immigrants per year, mostly from the United Kingdom and South Africa, an average of about 7,666 whites emigrated annually. This attitude was part of the larger decolonisation context, during which Western powers such as the United Kingdom, France, and Belgium hastened to grant independence to their colonies in Africa. [43] As early as 1960, ZAPU's predecessor, the National Democratic Party (NDP), had established informal contacts with the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia, and discussed the possibility of obtaining military training in Eastern Europe for its members. Six months' continuous residence was also required for qualifications (b) and (c). The city was originally named Salisbury after the 3d marquess of Salisbury, then British prime minister. In the low-lying parts of the country fever trees, mopane, combretum and baobabs abound. [79] The Soviets agreed to supply ZAPU with limited funds beginning in 1963, and increased its level of financial support after UDI. [6] Nevertheless, the new settlement, if approved, would also implement an immediate improvement in black political status, offer a means to terminate racial discrimination, and provide a solid guarantee against retrogressive constitutional amendments. [43] For the first time, the death sentence was also introduced for any act of politically inspired terrorism which involved arson or the use of explosives.[6]. [96]:602 In order to stop white emigration, the Smith government brought in a law in 1975 forbidding Rhodesian citizens from holding foreign currency, but the law was widely flouted. [43], Because Rhodesian exports were generally competitive and had previously been entitled to preferential treatment on the British market, the former colony did not recognise the need for escalating the pace of diversification before independence. [58] He had effectively been superseded before then; the Smith government stated that if the Queen did not appoint a Governor-General, it would name Dupont as "Officer Administering the Government". It was a landlocked country in southern Africa, lying between latitudes 15 and 23S, and longitudes 25 and 34E. [142], Since 1961, Rhodesia had an "Accredited Diplomatic Representative" with South Africa, heading a "Rhodesian Diplomatic Mission" or de facto embassy. This boom prompted the immigration of about 200,000 whites between 1945 and 1970, taking the white population up to 307,000. [81], ZAPU's attempts to implement its armed struggle were hamstrung by a factional split within the party between 1962 and 1963. [70] In response, the Rhodesian security forces began coordinating operations in Mozambique with the Portuguese army to intercept ZANLA insurgents before they could cross the border. CALLS FOR REMOVAL OF RHODESIAN FLAG IN STRAND, "The Sports Boycott Against Rhodesia Reconsidered", "Pattern, Puzzle, and Peculiarity: Rhodesia's UDI and Decolonisation in Southern Africa", "The Strange Death of 'Zimbabwe-Rhodesia': The Question of British Recognition of the Muzorewa Regime in Rhodesian Public Opinion, 1979", "Free and Fair? By December 1979 Muzorewa had secured an agreement with ZAPU and ZANU, allowing Rhodesia to briefly revert to colonial status pending new elections under British supervision. The Lancaster House Agreement further provided for a ceasefire which was followed by an internationally supervised general election, held on February 1980. With the agreement of the British Governor of Rhodesia, South African troops had entered the country to secure the road approaches to the Beit Bridge border crossing point. 26-Nov-2001. (Food). [162] After Zimbabwe's independence, the new government closed its missions in Pretoria and Cape Town, only maintaining a trade mission in Johannesburg,[163] while the South African Diplomatic Mission in Salisbury was also closed.[164]. Many expatriates and some of the whites who stayed in Zimbabwe became deeply nostalgic for Rhodesia. In December 1978, a ZANLA unit penetrated the outskirts of Salisbury and fired a volley of rockets and incendiary device rounds into the main oil storage depot the most heavily defended economic asset in the country. By the late 1970s, Rhodesia's front-line forces contained about 25,000 regular troops and police backed up by relatively strong army and police reserves. On 18 April 1980 the country became independent within the Commonwealth of Nations as the Republic of Zimbabwe, and its capital, Salisbury, was renamed Harare two years later. [152] Prior to its closure, the mission flew the newly adopted Flag of Rhodesia, considered illegal by the Foreign Office, prompting calls by Labour MP Willie Hamilton for its removal. "[95], A major problem for the Rhodesian state in fighting the Bush War was always a shortage of manpower. However, the requirement excluded a majority of native black people from the electorate. 11 November 1965 [has] marked the turning point of the struggle for freedom in that land from a constitutional and political one to primarily a military struggle. Rhodesia wished to retain its economic prosperity and also feared communist elements in the rebel forces, and thus felt their policy of a gradual progression to black majority rule was justified. [6] Over the next nine years Rhodesian companies, spiting the freezing of their assets and blocking of overseas accounts, also perfected cunning techniques of sanctions evasion through both local and foreign subsidiaries, which operated on a clandestine trade network. While there was never any suggestion of disloyalty among the soldiers from predominantly black units (in particular within the Selous Scouts or the Rhodesian African Rifles RAR), some argue that, by the time of the 1980 election, many of the RAR soldiers voted for Robert Mugabe. [74] Smith remained optimistic that Heath would do his utmost to remedy Anglo-Rhodesian relations, although disappointed that he continued to adhere publicly to the original "five principles" proposed by Alec Douglas-Home, now foreign secretary. [79] Its chief support base was the rural peasantry in the Mashonaland countryside. After Smith formally announced the UDI on the radio, Governor Gibbs used his reserve power to dismiss Smith and his entire cabinet from office, on orders from the Colonial Office in Whitehall. Rhodesia predominantly adhered to Christianity, with Protestantism being the largest denomination. [90] Rhodesian representatives made it clear they were prepared to fight an all out war to prevent majority rule. By 1979 there were also 30 black commissioned officers in the regular army. The office of President had only ceremonial significance with the Prime Minister holding executive power. Including a large branch of F. W. Woolworth. Therefore, these countries are failures. This open sharing portion of our website and its pages are dedicated to an exploration of various subjects relevant to our towns history as well asits continuing traditions. Salisbury, Rhodesia synonyms, Salisbury, Rhodesia pronunciation, Salisbury, Rhodesia translation, English dictionary definition of Salisbury, Rhodesia. Salisbury is approximately halfway between Exeter and London being 80 miles (128 km) east-northeast of Exeter, 78 miles (126 km) west-southwest of London and also 34 miles (55 km) south of Swindon, 20 miles (32 km) northwest of Southampton and 32 miles (51 km) southeast of Bath. Rhodesians Reflect on the Elections of 1979 and 1980", Rhodesian Bush War historical research / discussion forum, Ironing the lawn in Salisbury the last days of Rhodesia, 1975 BBC report on the failure of negotiations between the Rhodesian government and the black nationalists, The Brookings Institution: Managing Ethnic Conflict in Africa Rhodesia/Zimbabwe, Selby, Angus (2006) "Commercial Farmers and the State: Interest Group Politics and Land Reform in Zimbabwe, 18902005", PhD Thesis, Oxford University, Audio of Ian Smith's radio address announcing UDI, Southern Rhodesia African National Congress, Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rhodesia&oldid=1134347187, States and territories disestablished in 1979, States and territories established in 1965, Articles with dead external links from April 2019, Articles with permanently dead external links, Articles with dead external links from December 2017, Short description is different from Wikidata, Use South African English from April 2016, All Wikipedia articles written in South African English, Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters, Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters, All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases, Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from March 2017, Articles with unsourced statements from May 2016, Articles needing additional references from May 2020, All articles needing additional references, Articles needing additional references from February 2011, Articles with unsourced statements from December 2021, Pages using Sister project links with default search, Zimbabwe articles missing geocoordinate data, Articles missing coordinates with coordinates on Wikidata, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 18 January 2023, at 06:44. Following amendments to the country's constitution in 1987, parliamentary seats reserved for whites were abolished, and an executive presidency was created, held by Mugabe. Zambia, formerly Northern Rhodesia, took a pragmatic approach towards Rhodesia. Tags. [86], The practical alliances between ZIPRA and MK, and later ZANLA and FRELIMO, prompted Rhodesia to look increasingly towards South Africa and Portugal for active assistance. [22][23], Although prepared to grant formal independence to Southern Rhodesia (now Rhodesia), the British government had adopted a policy of no independence before majority rule (NIBMR), dictating that colonies with a significant, politically active population of European settlers would not receive independence except under conditions of majority rule. [28] According to the commission, whites were in favour of the settlement, and Rhodesians of Coloured or Asian ancestry generally pleased, while the black response to the settlement's terms was resoundingly negative. In the suburbs of Salisbury, residents with selfmocking, stiff-upper-lip stoicism grumble . [124] Rhodesian units compensated for their disadvantage in this regard by pursuing an aggressive preemptive and counterstrike strategy, raiding neighbouring states to destroy guerrilla forces in their external sanctuaries. Comments; Share more. [6] However, Waley also testified that majority rule was not desirable immediately. Green: Rhodesia; purple: friendly nations; orange: hostile states; grey: neutral countries, Unilateral Declaration of Independence (1965), Military and political escalation, 19721976, Southern Rhodesia (Annexation) Order in Council, 30 July 1923 that provided by section 3 thereof: "From and after the coming into operation of this Order the said territories shall be annexed to and form part of His Majesty's Dominions, and shall be known as the Colony of Southern Rhodesia. [126], Biological agents, namely Vibrio cholerae, had some impact on the fighting capability of ZANLA. [citation needed], Rhodesia had a tropical climate with many local variations. Among the numerous flowers and shrubs were hibiscus, flame lily, snake lily, spider lily, leonotus, cassia, tree wisteria and dombeya. 2 Waste-Illustrator145 10 hr. [21], On 12 October 1965, the United Nations General Assembly had noted the repeated threats of the Rhodesian authorities "to declare unilaterally the independence of Southern Rhodesia, in order to perpetuate minority rule", and called upon Wilson to use all means at his disposal (including military force) to prevent the Rhodesian Front from asserting independence. While Vorster was unwilling to make concessions to his own country's black people, he concluded that white minority rule was not sustainable in a country where black people outnumbered white people 22:1. The internal settlement left control of the country's police, security forces, civil service and judiciary in white hands, for the moment. However, elections and a multiracial provisional government, with Smith succeeded by moderate Abel Muzorewa, failed to appease international critics or halt the war. Mugabe promised that he would abide strictly by the terms of the Lancaster House Agreement and that changes in Zimbabwe would be made gradually and by a proper legal process. "Project Coast: Apartheid's Chemical and Biological Warfare Programme". Following the declaration of a republic in 1970, this was replaced by a bicameral Parliament, with a House of Assembly and a Senate. Even so, Gibbs continued to occupy his official residence, Government House, in Salisbury until 1970, when he finally left Rhodesia, following the declaration of a republic. Back to school shop. However, many native Africans still adhered to traditional African religions. In response to the initiative of US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, in 1976 Ian Smith accepted the principle of black majority rule within two years. [43] Nkomo's party, the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) announced that year that it had formed a military wing, the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) and "the decision to start bringing in arms and ammunition and to send young men away for sabotage training" had already been implemented. Field was succeeded by Ian Smith, chairman of the conservative Rhodesian Front Party and an outspoken critic of any immediate transition to majority rule. It assured whites of about one-third of the seats in parliament. These states wanted South Africa to pressure Ian Smith to accept a faster transition to majority rule in Rhodesia, in return for pledges of non-interference in South Africa's internal affairs. [106], The work of journalists such as Lord Richard Cecil, son of The 6th Marquess of Salisbury, stiffened the morale of Rhodesians and their overseas supporters. In April 1979 special forces carried out a raid on Joshua Nkomo's residence in Lusaka (Zambia) with the stated intention of assassinating him. Two African nationalist parties, the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) and Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), launched an armed insurgency against the government upon UDI, sparking the Rhodesian Bush War. [28] The policy of "No independence before majority rule" transformed the white community's relationship with the UK and increased its suspicions of the British government's untrustworthiness and duplicity in colonial affairs, especially since the latter had adopted NIBMR as a formal policy - the very circumstance UDI was carried out to avoid, and which white Rhodesians had struggled to resist since the onset of decolonisation. The independence constitution agreed at Lancaster House watered those provisions down and reserved 20 out of 100 seats for whites in the House of Assembly and 8 out of 40 seats in the Senate. it is better to fight to the last man and the last cartridge and die with some honour. [79] In 1963, ZIPRA also made its first formal request to the Soviet Union for military training. The old Victory Cinema is on the right, which was demolished when the new Pearl Assurance building was built in the early 1950s. After the declaration of independence, and indeed for the entire duration of its existence, Rhodesia did not receive official recognition from any state, although it did maintain diplomatic relations with South Africa, which was then under apartheid. [81] Rhodesia expected far more from South Africa, which possessed far greater military resources and infinitely more diplomatic influence abroad. Kenneth Kaunda, heavily dependent on access through Rhodesia for his nation's copper ore exports, fuel, and power imports unofficially worked with the Rhodesian government. 1. [96]:6593 As the white population of Rhodesia had a low birth rate (18 per 1,000 compared to the African rate of 48 per 1,000[131]), to maintain white population growth was largely dependent upon taking in new white immigrants with immigration accounting for 60% of the growth of the white Rhodesian population between 1955 and 1972. In the late 19th century, the territory north of the Transvaal was chartered to the British South Africa Company, led by Cecil Rhodes. ago They kept the same futuristic street lamps lmao [139], Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965 was promptly condemned by the international community. Simply a reminder of life in 20th Century Salisbury: Africa's short lived Shang-ri-la that held so much hope - for all races. [70] ZANLA placed greater emphasis on the politicisation of the local populace in the areas it operated, and favoured a more irregular style of warfare. [42] However, the UK's refusal to grant them independence on their terms further confirmed their opposition to a political settlement on British terms, and fed their negative attitudes towards British interference in Rhodesian politics at large. [114], As the result of an Internal Settlement signed on 3 March 1978 between the Rhodesian government and the moderate African nationalist parties, which were not in exile and not involved in the war, elections were held in April 1979. 1897 (7 May) O.P.S (Returned Letter Branch) envelope to Bulawayo showing 'SALISBURY/MASHONALAND' c.d.s, 1901 (Aug) 1d card to Selekwe cancelled by 'GWELO/RHODESIA' double ring d/stamp, 1907 (21 Mar) d card to Belingwe cancelled by 'GWELO/RHODESIA' double ring d/stamp and showing arrival c.d.s alongside, 1923 (8 Dec) 1d wrapper to Gwelo cancelled superb 'HEADLANDS/RHODESIA' double ring d . The South African government held up shipments of fuel and ammunition and pulled out friendly South African forces from Rhodesia. A sustained period of civil unrest between 1960 and 1965 further polarised relations between the government and the increasingly militant black nationalists. [6], In 1964, growing white dissatisfaction with the ongoing negotiations played a major role in the ousting of Winston Field as Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia. Yes! Digg; Reddit; Stumble Upon; Tumblr; Delicious; Google Buzz; . [70] Due to ZAPU's close relationship with the Soviet Union, ZANU found itself ostracised by the Soviet bloc but soon found a new ally in the People's Republic of China. [80] It also passed draconian security legislation restricting the right to assembly and granting the security forces broad powers to crack down on suspected political subversives. Salisbury was the capital of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1953-63). [83] The insurgents failed to cultivate prior contacts with the local populace, which immediately informed on their presence to Rhodesian officials. [83] For its part, the ZANLA leadership criticised ZIPRA's continued fixation with winning a major conventional engagement, arguing that the failed incursions demonstrated the futility of engaging the Rhodesian military in the type of pitched battles in which it held an indisputable advantage. The observers and Soames were accused of looking the other way, and Mugabe's victory was certified. [42] This was hardly an unusual opinion among white minorities in Southern Africa at the time; a dossier compiled by United States intelligence officials on the topic found that: many [southern African] whites.believe that the current social and political ferment throughout the continent is communist inspired and managed; that it would be no problem without communist instigation. To Smith and his government, black nationalists were stateless dissidents whose primary motives were not political, but crime and perpetuating lawlessness; for example, Smith preferred to describe the insurgents as "gangsters" in his commentary. Ian Smith said in his memoirs that even though many white South Africans supported Rhodesia, South African Prime Minister John Vorster's policy of dtente with the black African states ended up with Rhodesia being offered as the "sacrificial lamb" to buy more time for South Africa. Rhodesia had a centralised government and was divided into seven provinces and two cities with provincial status, for administrative purposes. [6], During a two-proposition referendum held in 1969, the proposal for severing all remaining ties to the British Crown passed by a majority of 61,130 votes to 14,327. The 1961 Constitution governed Southern Rhodesia and independent Rhodesia up until 1969, using the Westminster Parliamentary System modified by a system of separate voter rolls with differing property and education qualifications, without regard to race. Preserving Our Town's History and Traditions, Salisbury Historical Society, New Hampshire. [126] Use of anthracis, ricin, or botulinum toxin was favoured during assassination attempts of prominent guerrilla commanders.[126]. The 1969 republican constitution established a bicameral Parliament consisting of an indirectly elected Senate and a directly elected House of Assembly, effectively reserving the majority of seats for whites. When Rhodesia set up the Rhodesian Information Office in Washington, DC, OAS nations loudly protested. In an effort to delay the transition to black majority rule, the predominantly white Southern Rhodesian government issued its own Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. The government amended the Constitution in 1987 to abolish the seats reserved for whites, and replace the office of Prime Minister with an executive President. At this point, ZANU's alliance with FRELIMO and the porous border between Mozambique and eastern Rhodesia enabled large-scale training and infiltration of ZANU/ZANLA fighters. John Ward. [citation needed], The main newspapers were the Rhodesia Herald in Salisbury and The Chronicle in Bulawayo. The vast majority of these countries' populations remained poor and impoverished. [79] Its political ideology was somewhat more influenced by the principles of Maoism than ZAPU, and a sympathetic Chinese government soon agreed to furbish weapons and training for ZANU's own war effort. [36] Aside from a common interest in maintaining security ties in southern Africa, Salazar expressed a great deal of anger at Britain's refusal to support Portugal during the Indian annexation of Goa in 1961, admonishing Smith not to trust the British government. [165] [72] Smith defended his actions by claiming that the black Rhodesian majority was too inexperienced at the time to participate in the complex administrative process of what was, by contemporary African standards, a reasonably industrialised state. [167], This article is about the unrecognised state of Rhodesia. The United African National Council (UANC) party won a majority in this election, and its leader, Abel Muzorewa (a United Methodist Church bishop), became the country's first black prime minister on 1 June 1979. [123] Regular units remained small throughout the Rhodesian Bush War but became increasingly specialised and were often able to have an effect utterly disproportionate to their size. Interestingly, the blue bus circumnavigating the roundabout is, I think, one belonging to a small company that ran services to one of Salisbury's northern suburbs, Marlborough, and was just known . [76], As early as 1960, minority rule in Southern Rhodesia was already being challenged by a rising tide of political violence led by black African nationalists such as Joshua Nkomo and Ndabaningi Sithole. "[122] The formidable nature of the Rhodesian security forces, as well as British fears of a direct South African intervention on behalf of the rogue colony, preempted the further consideration of military options. [54], Despite the poor showing of sanctions, Rhodesia found it nearly impossible to obtain diplomatic recognition abroad. [6][7] In 1922, faced with the decision to join the Union of South Africa as a fifth province or accept nearly full internal autonomy, the electorate cast its vote against South African integration. By this time, even South Africa's Vorster had come to this view. [144], During 1965, the government of Rhodesia made moves to establish a mission in Lisbon separate from the British Embassy, with its own accredited representative, having previously been able to establish its own consulate in Loureno Marques, capital of Portuguese Mozambique. Fort Victoria to Salisbury. A number of ZAPU dissidents rejected Nkomo's authority and formed their own organisation, the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), with Ndabangingi Sithole as its president and Robert Mugabe as its general secretary. They also looked at using Rickettsia prowazekii (causative agent of epidemic typhus), and Salmonella typhi (causative agent of typhoid fever), and toxins such as ricin and botulinum toxin. After World War II the population grew as many people migrated to the city. Its electoral register had property and education qualifications. [143] Before South Africa left the Commonwealth that year, the then Southern Rhodesia had exchanged High Commissioners with the then Union of South Africa, but following the change in status, the Republic now had a "South African Diplomatic Mission" in Salisbury. The Constitution of the short-lived Zimbabwe Rhodesia, which saw a black-led government elected for the first time, reserved 28 of the 100 parliamentary seats for whites. [71], Critics of UDI maintained that Ian Smith intended to safeguard the privileges of an entrenched colonial ruling class at the expense of the impoverished black population. [29] The second faction in the white community was wholly unwilling to concede the principle, much less the practice, of equality to the black population. 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